B. Ed Notes, All Universities ENGLISH AS AN GLOBAL/INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

ENGLISH AS AN GLOBAL/INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE

BACKGROUND:                 About one hundred years ago many educated people learned and spoke French when they met people from other countries. Today most people speak English when they meet foreigners. It has become the new international language. There are more people who speak English as a second language than people who speak English as a first language.

REASONS FOR POPULARITY OF ENGLISH:              There are many reasons why English has become so popular. One of them is that English has become the language of business. Another important reason is that popular American culture (like movies, music, and McDonald's) has quickly spread throughout the world. It has brought its language with it.

British colonialism in the 19th century and American capitalism and technological progress in the 20th century were undoubtedly the main causes for the spread of English throughout the world. The English language came to British Isles from northern Europe in the fifth century. From the fifteenth century, the British began to sail all over the world and became explorers, colonists and imperialists. They took the English language to North America, Canada and the Caribbean, to South Africa, to Australia and New Zealand, to South Asia (especially India), to the British colonies in Africa, to South East Asia and the South Pacific.

POPULATION OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE SPEAKERS:              English is part of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It is spoken as a native language by around 377 million and as a second language by around 375 million speakers in the world. Speakers of English as a second language will soon outnumber those who speak it as a first language.

Around 750 million people are believed to speak English as a foreign language. English has an official or a special status in 75 countries with a total population of over 2 billion.

ENGLISH AS A COMMUNICATION MEDIA:                  The domination of the English language globally is undeniable. English is the language of diplomacy and international communications, business, tourism, education, science, computer technology, media and Internet. Because English was used to develop communication, technology, programming, software, etc, it dominates the web. 70% of all information stored electronically is in English.

The USA has played a leading role in most parts of the world for the last hundred years. At the end of the 19th century and first quarter of the 20th, it welcomed millions of European immigrants who had fled their countries ravaged by war, poverty or famine. This labor force strengthened American economy.

WHEN ENGLISH REPLACED FRENCH:       Before the Treaty of Versailles (1919), which ended the First World War between Germany and the Allies, diplomacy was conducted in French. However, President Woodrow Wilson succeeded in having the treaty in English as well. Since then, English started being used in diplomacy and gradually in economic relations and the media.

The future of English as a global language will depend very largely on the political, economical, demographic and cultural trends in the world. The beginning of the 21st century is a time of global transition. According to some experts, faster economic globalization is going hand in hand with the growing use of English. More and more people are being encouraged to use English rather than their own language. On the other hand, the period of most rapid change can be expected to be an uncomfortable and at times traumatic experience for many people around the world. Hence, the opposite view, that the next 20 years or so will be a critical time for the English language and for those who depend upon it. The patterns of usage and public attitudes to English which develop during this period will have long-term effects for its future in the world.

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IMPORTANCE OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE:                    A language is a systematic means of communication by the use of sounds or conventional symbols. It is the code we all use to express ourselves and communicate to others. It is a communication by word of mouth. It is the mental faculty or power of vocal communication.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:           It is a system for communicating ideas and feelings using sounds, gestures, signs or marks. Any means of communicating ideas, specifically, human speech, the expression of ideas by the voice and sounds articulated by the organs of the throat and mouth is a language. This is a system for communication. A language is the written and spoken methods of combining words to create meaning used by a particular group of people. At present, humanity uses 6,809 living languages and about 100 living scripts to facilitate its social interactions . However, there is an urgent need for the adoption of a common link language in a world in which all its people are quickly becoming interdependent despite the many differences of their myriad cultures, races, religions and ideologies. The ‘planetization of humankind’ is almost complete due to the effects of recent dramatic advances in transport and communication. It is now almost impossible for us to fully participate in the global village that we live in, without ‘knowing’ a common world language. However, the common link language that would be the universally accepted means of communication should not be allowed to undermine the importance of any other existing language or culture. In fact, new linguistic insights have made us aware that no human language is superior to any other and that the development and growth of a language depend upon its use.

EMERGENCE OF ENGLISH IN OTHER LANGUAGES:              Meanwhile, English, for various reasons—primarily due to British rule in the many parts of the world—has emerged as the popular lingua franca . In the process, it must be acknowledged, the role of English and its functions have vastly changed. English is no more seen as the language of the rulers, or as an instrument of promoting British culture and values. According to the famous linguist Tom McArthur, “In the closing years of the twentieth century the English language has become a global resource. As such it does not owe its existence or the protection of its essence to any nation or group."

LANGUAGE OF RESEARCH:          The latest and the most advanced discoveries and inventions in science and technology are being made in the universities located in the United States of America where English language is the means of scientific discourse.

LANGUAGE OF BUSINESS:            English language comes to our aid in our commercial transactions throughout the globe. English is the language of the latest business management in the world and Indian proficiency in English has brought laurels to many Indian business managers. English is a means not only for international commerce; it has become increasingly essential for inter-state commerce and communication.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE IS A TOOL:  English language is one tool to establish our viewpoint. We can learn from others experience. We can check the theories of foreigners against our experience. We can reject the untenable and accept the tenable. We can also propagate our theories among the international audience and readers.

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Direct Method of Teaching English

The Direct Method was a reaction to Translation Method and was introduced in India in the early Twentieth Century. It is a method in which attempt is made to teach English without using the mother tongue as a medium. That is, a direct as well as immediate bond is established between the English words, phrases or idioms and their meanings.

For the first time the Direct Method has accepted in theory needs and principles of learning a foreign language. It aims at teaching English in its natural setting and does not tolerate any interference of the mother-tongue. It seeks to establish direct relationship between the real experience and the corresponding expression, Macnee has, rightly stated, "The Direct Method of teaching a foreign language may be defined as a method in which a new word or expression is connected in the pupils' mind directly with what it stands for and not through the medium of the vernacular." For example the word 'book' is connected directly with the real thing 'book' and not through vernacular word 'bahi' or pustak' when, such direct connection is not possible, explanation etc. of words or expressions.

H.E. Palmer in his book "English through Actions" has described the following conditions for operation of the Director Method of teaching English.

(1) There should be no use of the mother-tongue in the class. This method does away with any resort to mother-tongue either in the form of translation or in the form of expression of words.

(2) No formal grammar should be taught. Only functional dammar should be taught in inductive method.

(3) After the pupil grasps the structures and vocabulary through oral work, he is introduced to reading and writing.

(4) The children should be well-grounded in pronunciation systematically.

(5) The new words and forms are to be explained through natural surroundings.

(6) The structures and vocabulary are to be impressed through suitable questions and answers.

Since direct association through oral work is an essential feature of the Direct Method, the beginning can be made by associating objects in the class rooms, pictures, gestures, postures etc. with a large number of English words which may be classified under the different parts of speech. The following general principles may be observed in teaching English by this a Method.

(1) When the pupil learns names of things (nouns) the real objects should be shown to him. If it will not be possible then diagrams, illustrations, sketches, models etc. are to be used.

(2) When words which stand in place of the names of things or persons (Pronouns) are to be introduced; they should be used in connection with the persons and things actually present in the situation of the child.

(3) When introducing the adjectives, number may be counted (five pens), quality may be seen (white horse), felt (cold drink), smelt (a sweet rose) and heard (a loud voice).

(4) When introducing prepositions, conjunctions, and the relationships may be demonstrated as a book placed on, in, above, below, besides etc.

(5) When introducing adverbs, manner, time-cause of actions etc. may be explained by actions, like walking slowly, sitting idle, reading aloud etc.

(6) The unit of speech is a sentence and not a word. Practice of speaking in complete sentences is to be always adhered to.

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Audio-lingual method

The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which professes that certain traits of living things, and in this case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement—correct use of a trait would receive positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.

This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students be taught a language directly, without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language. However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method didn’t focus on teaching vocabulary. Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.

Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, this means that the instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction—everything is simply memorized in form. The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. In this manner, the lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing that will result in a student receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct opposition with communicative language teaching. Charles Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the student. In other words, it was the students’ job to orally recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical structures. The students were only given “enough vocabulary to make such drills possible.” (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later included principles for behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F. Skinner, into this method.

HISTORICAL ROOTS

The Audio-lingual method is the product of three historical circumstances.

1.     For its views on language, audiolingualism drew on the work of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield. The prime concern of American Linguistics at the early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the USA.

2.     Because of the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral language was developed.At the same time, behaviourist psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all behaviour (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement.

3.     The third factor that enabled the birth of the Audio-lingual method was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American servicemen all over the world. It was therefore necessary to provide these soldiers with at least basic verbal communication skills. Unsurprisingly, the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods of the time, observation and repetition, which were also admirably suited to teaching en masse. Because of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army method.”

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GRAMMAR TRANSLATION

In applied linguistics, the grammar translation method is a foreign language teaching method derived from the classical (sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. The method requires students to translate whole texts word-for-word and memorize numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The goal of this method is to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.

HISTORY AND PHILOSOPHY

Throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, the education system was formed primarily around a concept called faculty psychology. In brief, this theory dictated that the body and mind were separate and the mind consisted of three parts: the will, emotion, and intellect. It was believed that the intellect could be sharpened enough to eventually control the will and emotions.

METHOD

Classes were conducted in the native language. A chapter in a distinctive textbook of this method would begin with a massive bilingual vocabulary list. Grammar points would come directly from the texts and be presented contextually in the textbook, to be explained elaborately by the instructor.

CRITICISM

The method by definition has a very limited scope of objectives. Later, theorists such as Vietor, Passy, Berlitz, and Jespersen began to talk about what a new kind of foreign language instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar translation was missing. They supported teaching the language, not about the language, and teaching in the target language, emphasizing speech as well as text. Through grammar translation, students lacked an active role in the classroom, often correcting their own work and strictly following the textbook.

PRINCIPLES OF GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD:           The main principles on which the grammar translation method is based are the following:

1.             Translation interprets the words and phrases of the foreign languages in the best possible manner.

2.             The phraseology and the idioms of the target language can best be assimilated in the process of interpretation.

3.             The structures of the foreign languages are best learned when compared and contrast with those of first language.

In this method, while teaching the textbook the teacher translates every word and phrase from English into the learners' first language. Further, students are required to translate sentences from their first language into the target language. These exercises in translation are based on various items covering the grammar of the target language. The method emphasizes the study of grammar through deduction, that is, through the study of the rules of grammar. A contrastive study of the target language with the first language gives an insight into the structure not only of the foreign language but also of the first language.

ADVANTAGES

The grammar translation method has two main advantages.

1.             The phraseology of the target language is quickly explained. Translation is the easiest way of explaining meanings or words and                 phrases from one language into another.

2.             Teacher’s labor is saved. Since the textbooks are taught through the medium of the first language, the teacher may ask comprehension   questions on the text taught in the first language. Pupils will not have much difficulty in responding to questions in the first language.

DISADVANTAGES

Along with its advantages, the grammar translation method comes with many disadvantages.

1.             It is an unnatural method. In the grammar translation method the teaching of the second language starts with the teaching of reading.                 Thus, the learning process is reversed.

2.             Speech is neglected. The grammar translation method places emphasis on reading and writing, neglecting speech. Thus, the students                 who are taught through this method fail to express themselves adequately in spoken English.

3.             Exact translation is not always possible. preposition "se" and vice versa.

4.             It does not give pattern practice. A person can learn a language only when he internalizes its patterns to the extent that they form his habit. But the grammar translation method does not provide any such practice to the learner of a language.

CONCLUSION

The grammar translation method stayed in schools until the 1960s, when a complete foreign language pedagogy evaluation was taking place. In the meantime, teachers experimented with approaches like the direct method in post-war and Depression era classrooms, but without much structure to follow. The trusty grammar translation method set the pace for many classrooms for many decades.

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EXPERIMENTAL METHOD IN PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENGLISH TEACHING

Experimental methods have played a significant role in the growth of English teaching and learning studies. The paper presented here outlines basic features of experimental design, including the manipulation of independent variables, the role and practicality of randomised controlled trials (RCTs) in educational research, and alternative methods and techniques available in the absence of RCTs. It further reviews validity issues inherent in conducting experimental research, in particular sources of internal and external invalidity, and how to remedy them. Along the way, the author suggests that researchers remain mindful of these threats, and calls for the replication of studies across different research contexts with the purposes of the cross-validation and generalisation of findings. The remainder of the paper concludes with suggestions on how to develop a more embedded and sophisticated experimental design in light of the current literature of mixed methodology (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011), in order to have more explanatory power and compensate for the weaknesses associated with the experimental method. Throughout the paper, the author illustrates the points with examples relevant to English teaching and learning research.

MANIPULATING INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

Experimental studies aim to investigate whether there is any treatment effect on participants’ behaviours or their internal processes. This entails experimental manoeuvring or artificially manipulating learning situations.

THE ROLE OF RANDOMISED CONTROLLED TRIALS

Having described the ways in which an independent variable can be manipulated, experimental studies should almost always involve two groups at least, with one being a treatment group whose members are exposed to the intervention and the other being a control or comparison group whose members are not exposed to such.

QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND OTHER METHODOLOGICAL TECHNIQUES

In the face of the reality that RCTs are often not practical in classroom contexts, researchers need to turn to quasi-experimental designs, in which intact groups are drawn on and one endeavours to equate one group with the other to the greatest possible extent. According to Fife-Schaw (2006), quasi-experiments, however, “should not be seen...as always inferior to true experiments...[they are sometimes] the next logical step in a long research process” in which research findings from laboratory experiments are tested in more practical or real life situations. Dörnyei (2007) concurs with Fife-Schaw, proposing that “properly designed and executed quasi-experimental studies yield scientifically credible results”

VALIDITY ISSUES AND EXPERIMENTATION IN LANGUAGE CLASSROOMS

Carrying out experiments in language classrooms is not without problems and limits, and English teachers and researchers who embark on their own research with this method and/or who need to gain knowledge from literature of this kind should be acquainted with overall design features and aspects of this particular method as well as relevant procedures. Among the various aspects of experiments is the validity of the experiments which is one of the most essential issues for one to critically evaluate the quality of a piece of research, and consequently tease out the implications from the findings therein. Validity takes an important position in experimentation, because it is concerned with “the truth of the causality” and it is “a basic tenet of experimental method” (Davis & Bremner, 2006)

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